Theoretical Approaches Of The Elderly Abuse Social Work Essay

Theoretical Approaches Of The Elderly Abuse Social Work Essay 2-1- Introduction In the upcoming chapter, the title will be review of research literature. This chapter considered as the heart of research supervises al the time research stages and is theoretical and performance guidance of research. This chapter consists of three main topics. The first topic titled review of research theoretical literature deals with theoretical approaches of the elderly abuse including definition, forms and associated theories. Outlines and former subject researches about the elderly abuse which have been done by different domestic and international researchers in forms of bachelor, master, doctoral theses or research projects were labeled as review of experimental research literature and forms the second topic of this chapter. And finally, the last topic which will be discussed in this chapter is elective theoretical research frame that we will try to review the former two topics (theoretical and experimental literature) and discuss theories and approaches which will be used reg arding the influential factors on elderly abuse in Malaysia and based on them other stages of research will be followed up in future chapters. Now in this part, firstly theoretical fundamentals of research will be discussed and then the assessment of experimental research literature inside and outside of the country will be covered: 2-2- Review of theoretical literature The following sentences relates to theoretical dimensions and conceptive environment of research topic. In another word, explanations and theoretical approaches about the elderly abuse including definition and effective factors are issues that will be covered and it will be tried that by exploring these topics, thought and mind environments of research will be clarified and we would be able to provide a background for future chapters, particularly results, conclusion, and suggestions. 2-2-1- The Definition of the Abuse of the Elderly Although there is an absence of agreed or standard definitions of abuse, commented on by McCreadie (1996) and others, a number of definitions of elder abuse have emerged. Early attempts at defining mistreatment in the UK context were relatively specific as seen, for example, in the following: A single or repeated act or lack of appropriate action occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person (Action on Elder Abuse, 1995) However, later definitions tend to have been more widely drawn, as in the recent government document, No Secrets, in which the definition is given as: Abuse is a violation of an individuals civil or human rights by any other person or persons (DoH, 2000). Given the lack of consensus concerning definition, which ultimately may not result in any major difficulty (Penhale, 1993), it is at least reassuring to find that most people concerned with the issue agree on the different types of mistreatment that can happen. The usual types of mistreatment included within most definitions are physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, financial abuse (also referring to exploitation and misappropriation of an individuals property and possessions), psychological and emotional abuse. When considering neglect, separate, stand-alone definitions do not usually appear, with neglect often appearing as a sub-type of abuse. Thus in the Social Services Inspectorate (1993) definition, elder abuse is described as: . . . physical, sexual, psychological or financial. It may be intentional or unintentional or the result of neglect (DoH, 1993, para 2.1). More recently, draft guidance issued by the Social Services Inspectorate indicates that abuse may occur: . . . as a result of a failure to undertake action or appropriate care tasks. It may be physical, psychological, or an act of neglect . . . (DoH, 1999, para 2.7). Neglect and acts of omission are then further delineated as: . . . including ignoring medical or physical care needs, failure to provide access to appropriate health, social care or educational services, the withholding of the necessities of life, such as medication, adequate nutrition and heating (DoH, 1999, para 2.8). To these may be added such categories as enforced isolation and deprivation of necessary items for daily living (warmth, food or other aspects, such as teeth). In general, however, situations of self-neglect by an older person would not be considered within the UK perspective of mistreatment. Although many practitioners work with older individuals who self-neglect, usually this is not considered within an elder mistreatment or indeed an adult protection framework. Abuse within institutions also encompasses situations that arise because of the regime or system that may operate in the unit in addition to individual acts of abuse that occur. There also may be abusive situations that arise between a resident and a member of care staff, initiated by the older person as protagonist, so there may be dual directionality of abuse, or unidirectional abuse from resident towards staff member (McCreadie, 1996). Neglect within institutions may arguably be more pervasive and insidious, affecting the daily lives of many residents in a myriad of ways, from overt to covert. According to the American Medical Association Council on Scientific Affairs (1987), with elderly abuse has several forms and definition is as follows: any act of commission or omission that results in harm or threatened harm to the health and benefit of an old people. The Select Committee on Aging defined the following categories of abuse: physical abuse, Neglect, emotional abuse, financial abuse, and self-neglect. In its most common usage, elder abuse is an all-inclusive term representing all types of mistreatment or abusive behavior toward older adults. Abusive acts include the following: striking, burning, threatening, abandoning, starving older adults, or taking their property without consent. If an act of violence, such as a slap, occurs only once, by most standards it is probably not considered to be elder abuse. If it happens fairly often or results in the hospitalization of the victim, the action is deemed abuse; likewise, threatening with a gun, sexual assault, or other mark edly violent acts need only occur once (Wolf, 2000).A shocking way for elderly people to spend their final days is in a state of maltreatment known as elder abuse. Although it can occur in institutions, it is most often suffered by frail elderly people living with their spouses or their children (Papalia aIds, 1995). 2-2-2- Forms of Older Adult Abuse There are many types of abuse that affect older adults. According to Gray-Vickrey (2001), the five most common types of abuses are as follows: 1. Neglect, whether intentional or unintentional, accounts for 49% of substantiated elder abuse cases. Neglect generally to happen when a care provider to not do what is excepted for an old people with adequate food, clothing, shelter, medical care, or assistance with activities of daily living. 2. Emotional abuse, the willful infliction of anguish through threats, intimidation, humiliation, and isolation, is involved in 35% of cases. 3. Financial abuse is the misuse of someones property and resources by another person. Financial or material exploitation occurs in 30% of cases. 4. Physical abuse, the use of physical forces that results in pain, impairment or bodily injury, accounts for 25% of substantiated elder abuse cases. Hitting, slapping, restraining, molesting, biting, burning, pushing, or pulling all qualify as physical abuse. 5. Sexual abuse is another extremely devastating form of the abuse of older adults. Sexual abuse can be seen as a type of physical abuse (Arbetter, 1995). However, it is often discussed separately due to the different types of harm inflicted upon older adults. In one study, researchers found that the urogenital injury due to sexual abuse was à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Prevalent among elderly people (Muram, Miller, Culter, 1992). There main sexual abuse behaviors are mentioned frequently in relevant literatures. First activity or activities which are done without any physical contacts. They something are called Hand off behaviors. A common form of hand-off abuse is to make the victim to watch pornographic sceneries, exhibition and voyeuristic activities. The second form of sexual abused is called Hand-on behaviors involving some physical contact with the victim. The third and most dramatic form of sexual abuse is a kind of painful action on victims sexual or rectal region.(Ramsey, Klawsnick, 1999). On the other hand, Pritchard (1999) introduced another category of abuse among older people which are commonly seen by health professionals: History of incest between mother and son. Husband wife sexual abuse. Older gay man abused in the community. Research is mixed concerning the victim-offender relationship in elder sexual abuse cases. Muram et al. (1992) compared the medical record of older sexual assault victims (n=53) to younger sexual assault victims (n=55) and found that older adults were more likely to be assaulted by strangers and to have the assault occur in their home. Johnson (1995) seems to agree, stating, Most sexual assaults of elderly women occur in the victims home by an assailant who is unknown to the victim (p.221). Research by Ramsey-Klawsnick (1991) and Holt (1993) suggested slightly different patterns. Ramsey-Klawsnick (1991) asked twenty adult protective service workers to identify and describe cases of sexual abuse among older adults they have seen in the past. The case workers identified twenty-eight cases of sexual abuse, with eighty one percent of the cases reportedly committed by caregivers. Seventy-eight percent of the abusers were relatives, with sons representing the majority of offenders. Research by Holt (1993), studied seventy-seven elder sexual abuse cases in Great Britain and found that fifty percent of the cases were committed by sons of the victims. None of the sexual assaults in Holts study were committed by strangers. According to NCEA (1998), sexual assault is a problem that is usually not associated with older adults, often accounting for approximately less than 1% of reported elder maltreatment cases. There is other dramatic type of psychological abuse. This kind of abuse can be demonstrated in different forms such as threats, bargaining, seduction, stalking or manipulation ( Marshal, Benton, Brazier, 2000). The most common characteristics of this kinds of abuse is their difficulty to be assessed. Johnson (1995) stated that they psychological abuse are not concrete, so they are hard to be assessed. According to Quirm and Tomita (1997), psychological abuse is an integral part of other types of abuse. Victims often report being threatened with nursing home placement if they protest physical abuse or if they threaten to tell someone outside of the family, or if they refuse to hand over money. According to NCEA (1998), psychological abuse accounted for approximately 35% of the cases of maltreatment reported in 1996. A well known form of abuse can be financial abuse which extremely traumatic in nature. In order to recognize financial abuse, it is suggested to have the following items in mind: Unusual transaction in bank activities. Older persons inability to sign other documents such as power of attorney, will or other bank drafts. Care givers disappear suddenly. D) There is a lack of amenities, when the estate can afford it (Quinn Tomita, 1997). Larue (1992) suggests that financial abuse might have been even more common than reports indicate because it is so difficult to detect. Research that relies on interviews with people in their communities instead of abuse complaints filed with governmental agencies tends to support this view. For example, Canadian researchers who randomly sampled citizens at home showed financial exploitation to be more common than neglect (Podnieks, Pillemer, Nicholson, Shillington, Frizzell, 1990). According to Welfel, Danzinger, and Santoro (2000), the financial exploitation of older adults ometimes experienced through fraudulent telemarketing schemes or through unscrupulous contractors who are strangers are not the primary domains of elder mistreatment laws. Criminal statutes relating to fraud and extortion are probably better suited to deal with such schemes. However, if a person befriends an older person and begins caring for that older adult in order to take money or material goods from him or her, that person would likely be subject to the elder abuse statutes. The most common form of the abuse of older adults is neglect, which involves failure to provide essential physical or mental care for an older person. Physical neglect includes withholding food or water, failing to provide proper hygiene, or neglecting to offer physical aid or safety precautions. Neglect needs not to be intentional; it sometimes occurs when the caregiver is unable to provide the older person with proper care (Lachs Pillemer, 1995). Overall, 49% of the reports of elder maltreatment involve neglect and maltreatment, either intentional or unintentional (NCEA, 1998). Abandonment is a particular form of neglect. The state of Connecticut defines abandonment as the desertion or willful forsaking of an elder by a caretaker or foregoing, withdrawal, or neglect of duties and obligations owned an elder by a caretaker or others (Fulmer, Mc Mahon, Baer-Hines, Forget, 1992, p. 506). According to the American College of Emergency Physicians (1999), scenarios of abandonment include family members dropping off elderly persons, boarding homes or nursing homes dropping off elderly persons, and, in some cases, elderly persons seeking out care in emergency rooms on their own because they are unable to care for themselves. There are times when the neglect older adults suffer results from their own actions or inactions. This problem is referred to as self-neglect. Older adults may self-neglect when they fail to take medications, repeatedly skip meals, use alcohol or other drugs to excess, or fail to attend to personal hygiene. Often, such self-neglect is associated with untreated physical or mental health problems, especially depression (Quinn Tomita, 1997). Tatara (1996) suggested that as many as one third of elder abuse cases involve self-neglect or self-abuse. The NCEA (1997) gathered data about self-neglect and found that self-neglect cases are those that are most often dealt with by protective service employees. Estimates of the extent of self-neglect are likely low because most elderly persons who are neglecting themselves would be unlikely to report their self-neglect to authorities (Hall, 1987). Byers and Lamanna (1993) further note that protective service workers often find these cases the mos t difficult to handle because efforts to stop the self neglect are resisted by the victim. 2-2-3 Factors that Contribute to the elder abuse Everitt, OMalley, and Campion, (1983). (a) Those focusing on the victims dependency: That is, there are a variety of factors that may contribute to older adult abuse and neglect. According to Bennett and Kingston (1993) and Biegel and Blum (1990), several factors predisposing elderly abuse by caresr include    : (1) mental and physical dependence to one family, (2) poor communication or a failure of relationship, (3) considerable change in a caregivers lifestyle,(4) perceptions of caregivers towards dependence of older persons, (5) frequent visits to general practitioners by the informal caregivers to talk about their problems, (6) role reversal, and (7) isolation of the household. Preliminary hypotheses regarding the cause of elder mistreatment that was based on case reports and early studies were reviewed by OMalley on physical and mental impairment of an older adult, (b) Those emphasizing the effect of stress on the caregiver, (c) Those concerned with the influence of families who have learned to solve problems by being violent with one another, (d) Those that focus on the individual problems of the abuser, and (e) Effects of a society, which casts older adults in the role of non-persons through ageism, sexism, and destructive attitudes toward the disabled and toward those who are perce ived to be unattractive. Several researchers have identified various risk factors that can potentially lead to mistreatment or abuse of older adults. According to Anastasio (1981), risk factors that characterize precipitators are inability to provide care, financial needs and inability to maintain ones home. For victims, the risk factors include functional impairment and adverse physiological change. There are a variety of probable causes of the abuse of older adults. Most causes of abuse are committed in residential rather than institutional settings, and the most likely culprits are spouses, children, siblings, relatives, or paid caregivers. In older persons, the most common types of maltreatment are neglect, emotional/psychological abuse, and physical abuse (Marshall, Benton, Brazier, 2000). Other risk factors in abuse are (1) shared living arrangements between the elder person and the abuser, (2) dependence of the abuser on the victim, and (3) social isolation of the elder pers on. The typical victim is an elderly person in poor health that lives with someone. Elderly people living alone, whether widowed, divorced, or never married are at low risk. The abuser is more likely to be a spouse than a child, reflecting the fact that more elderly people live with their spouses than with children; and the risk factor is greater when the caregiver is depressed (Pillemer Finkelhor, 1988: Paveza, et al. 1992). Although many older men are abused, abuse against women inflicts more injuries. Rates of violence are high in families with an elder person suffering from dementia; in these families punching, kicking, and other violent behaviors are high in both directions (Paveza, et. al., 1992). In the United States, the number of reported cases of domestic elder abuse nationwide, calculated by combining state reports and adjusting for differences in definitions and eligibility criteria, has increased steadily from 117,000 in 1986 to 296,000 in 1996 (Tatara, 1995; Tatara, Kuzmeskas, and Duckhom, 1997). 2-2-4Competing theoretical explanations of elder abuse Five major theories have been set forth in an effort to understand the causes of elder mistreatment. These theories include (a) the impairment theory, which advances the idea that elderly persons who have a severe mental impairment are most likely to be abused; (b) the theory of psychopathology of the abuser, contending that personality traits or character disorders cause persons to be abusive; (c) the transgenerational violence theory, which holds that violence is a learned normative behavior in some families; (d) the stressed caregiver theory, which examines the burdens a dependent elder places on the family; and (e) the exchange theory, which evaluates the effect of external influences upon the relationship between victim and abuser (Fulmer, 1998). Lachs fulmer (1993) reported seven leading theories or conceptual frameworks are used to examine the etiology of elder abuse. Of course, in addition to these seven theories, exchange theory has paid attention to the elderly abuse subject from the view of expenses and rewards that will be pointed out in the following of the seven theories. 2-2-4-1- Psychology of the abuser The first is psychology of the abuser, which refers to caregivers who have pre- existing condition that impair their capacity to give appropriate care. For example, a caregiver who has mental retardation or alcohol dependency may not be able to exercise appropriate judgment in care giving of older adults. This can ultimately lead to abuser neglect (Lachs fulmer, 1993). 2-2-4-2 Transgenerational violence The next Theory is related to transgenerational violence. According to this theory, elderly abuse can be a part of the continuing domestic violence that started with child abuse and elderly abuse will end. Little research has been done to obtain empirical evidence to support this theory, but the same number also emphasized on its importance. Another aspect of transgenerational violence relates to adult children that long time lived with their parents and children were abused then grow up and the elderly parents living with them are being abused. (Lachs fulmer, 1993). 2-2-4-3- Learning theory Finally, transgenerational violence has been explained in terms of a learning theory in that a child who observes violence as a coping mechanism may learn it and bring to adult life (Lachs fulmer, 1993). 2-2-4-4- Isolation theory National center on elder abuse and the American public human services association (1998) has reported isolation theory espouses that mistreatment is prompted by a dwindling social network. According to the National Elder Abuse incidence study about 25% of all elderly person live alone and even more interact only with family members and have little social interaction with the outside word. Isolated older adults are at the particular risk because there are no outsiders watching out for them, and they may not be identified by the healthcare system or reporting agencies until it is too late (Lachs fulmer, 1993). According to Godkin, Wolf, and Pillemer (1989), it is difficult to determine whether isolation is the result of mistreatment (family members or caregivers may be trying to hide the abuse from the outside word) or precipitating factor of abuse. 2-2-4-5- Identity Theory Other theories are role and identity theories. A synthesis of role theory and identity theory has provides an explanation of the effects of socially constructed roles and identities for the elderly. It assists in understanding how these socially constructed roles and identities may increase the elders vulnerability to abuse. 2-2-4-6- Role Theory In their classic text on role theory, Biddle and Thomas (1986) noted that one of the key characteristics of social behavior is the fact that human beings behave in ways that are different and predictable depending on their respective social identities and the situation. Key concepts of role theory includes: the identities that actors assume, the expectations for behavior of the actor that is mutually understood and adhered to by the individuals, and the social behaviors that are characteristic of the particular behavior. 2-2-4-7- Social exchange theory Another conceptual model that has been used to explain elder abuse has been derived from social exchange theory. Social exchange theory is based on the idea that social interaction involves the exchange of reward and punishments between at least two people and that all individuals seek to maximize reward and perform instrumental services. In fact, with increasing physical infirmities, the individual begins to require more and more in the form of instrumental services. Therefore, when one is old and infirm, violating the law of distributive justice is relatively easy. In addition, because of the losses associated with aging, the individuals potential to supplement social ties and to extend a personal power base is reduced. As a result, the individual becomes less able to reciprocate rewarding behaviors and less likely to have a choice about continuing unrewarding or punishing social exchanges with those who perform an instrumental service. Figuratively speaking, the elderly individual must begin to live on the credit accumulated over the years because there are few ways to replenish the bank. One outcome of the aging condition that Dowed predicts is that as the imbalance in power increases, the older person is likely to display more passivity and compliance and more withdrawing behaviors in an effort not to alienate the remaining few people who can provide rewards and services. 2-2-4-8- Situational theory Steinmets (1990) have explained situational theory, which is also referred to as caregiver stress. As care burdens multiply, they outweigh the caregivers capacity to meet the needs of the older adult; therefore, caregiver stress can overwhelm the situation. Elder abuse can be outcome. The situational model is the explanatory base that was the earliest devised to explain elder abuse. It also appears to be the most widely accepted at this time. Derived from the theoretical base associated predominately with child abuse and less strongly with other forms of intrafamily violence, this model has considerable intuitive appeal. In addition, among clinicians, this model has popular support, since its basic premise fit easily within an intervention framework. Very simply, the basic premise of the situational model is that as the stress associated with certain situational and/or structural factors increases for the abuser, the likelihood increases of abusive acts directed at a vulnerable individual who is seen as being associated with the stress. The situational variables that have been linked with abuse of the elderly have included 1) elder related factors such as physical and emotional dependency, poor health, impaired mental status, and a difficult personality. 2) Structural factors such as economic strains, social isolation, and environmental problems, and 3) caregiver related factors such as life crisis, burn out or exhaustion with care giving, substance abuse problems, and previous socialization experiences with violence. There is a lot of support to approve the situational model. It is obviofied us that the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ burden of stress to caregivers makes more than overwhelmed and older abuse family members. Moreover, psychological model of child abuse and interfamily violence model which are highly related to structural and situational stress. Bring up the problem of older abuse. If gives a strong approval to use situational model for abuse among older people. Finklhor and Pillemer stated that there are some similarity between child abuse and elder abuse. They found this similarity in vulnerability of abuse victim and frustration in caregivers. Moreover, both child and elder abuse share the social context and are identified by healthcare professionals. They believe that the story is true for spouse abuse, too. Whatever the reason of abuse, it can be prevented. This à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.that shows that situational model is an applicable model for elder abuse. 2-2-4-9 Physical/Mental Dependence (Impairment) This theory is based on the belief that elderly persons who have a severe mental or physical impairment are most vulnerable to becoming abused.   In relationships where one person is dependent and another person is the helper or caregiver, there is always potential for misuse of power by the caregiver. Summary of theoretical explanations To explain the causes of elder abuse, some researchers in developed countries have viewed it as a problem of an overburdened caregiver (situational model), a mentally disturbed abuser (intra-individual dynamics), or a dependent perpetrator and dependent victim (exchange theory). Others have used learned behavior (social learning theory), the imbalance of power within relationships (feminist theory), and the marginalization of elders (political economy theory), or a lack of fit between the organism and the environment (ecological theory). 2-3- Review of experimental literature Phenomenon of the elderly abuse and its forms and causes are subjects that have been explored by sociologists, social psychologists and hygiene experts to find its visible and invisible dimensions. This part of the draft, as is clear from its topic, is discussing subject experimental literature about characteristics of victims. This literature involves all performed studies and researches in the form of governmental reports, organizational researches, bachelor, master, and doctoral theses that are cited according to the year they have been performed. No one explanation for the cause of elder abuse exists. Abuse is a complex problem which is rooted in multiple factors (Wolf, 2000). Caregiver stress and burden was once regarded as a major causative factor of elder abuse. However, Anetzberger (2000) discusses the complexity of elder abuse and the results of prior studies, which suggest that the etiology of elder abuse is multifaceted, and that caregiver stress and burden is not the only dominant risk factor. She stresses that the reality of elder abuse demands the development of new explanatory and intervention models (Anetzberger, 2000). A number of socio-demographic factors have been identified as possible contributors to elder abuse. Levine (2003) lists the following factors: intra-family stressors including separation, divorce and financial strain, ageism, increased life expectancy and medical advances that have prolonged years lived with chronic disease (Levine, 2003). Elders are abused in homes, hospitals, nursing homes and in other institutions (Nelson, 2002). Prevalence or incidence data on elder abuse in institutional settings are lacking despite the vast existing literature on issues of quality of care (Wolf, 2000). Most elder abuse and neglect takes place in the home and is inflicted by family, household members and paid caregivers (Smith, 2002). A survey conducted in one US state reported that 36% of nursing and support staff reported having witnessed at least one incident of physical abuse by another staff member during the prior year and 10% admitted to having committed at least one act of physical abuse themselves (Wolf, 2000). A cross-sectional retrospective chart review of new in- and outpatients conducted by a Montreal General Hospital Division of Geriatric Psychiatry in one calendar year, studied the prevalence and correlates of four types of elder abuse and neglect in a geriatric psychiatry service (Vida, Monks, Des Rosiers, 2002) Although this study was limited by a clinically derived and a relatively small sample size of 126 patients, it was reported that elder abuse and neglect was suspected or confirmed in 16% of patients studied. Living with non-spouse family, friends, or other persons in a non-supervised setting, along with a history of family disruptions by widowhood, divorce, or separation were significantly correlated with abuse, while statistically non-significant yet potentially important identifiers included female gender, alcohol abuse, and low functional status. Elders are most at risk from family members (Nelson, 2002). The perpetrator is a family member in two-thirds of known cases of abuse and neglect and was identified as adult children or spouses (National Center on Elder Abuse, 1998). Despite the popular image of elder abuse occurring in a setting of a dependent victim and an overstressed caregiver, there is accumulating evidence that it is neither ca regiver stress levels nor the dependence level of the victim that are the core factors leading to elder abuse (Wolf, 2000). It is now felt that stress may be a contributing factor in abuse cases but it does not explain the phenomenon (Wolf, 2000). Recent studies on the relationships between caregiver stress, Alzheimers disease, and elder abuse suggest that it is the long-term or pre-abuse nature of the relationships which is the important factor in predicting instances of maltreatment (Wolf, 2000). The mental status of the perpetrator which includes emotional, psychiatric, and substance a buse problems, the dependency of the perpetrator on the victim, and the lack of outside the home external support for the victim continue to emerge as elder abuse risk factors (Wolf, 2000). A cohort of 2,812 community-dwelling adults over the age of 65 from the

Advertisement Analysis: American Beauty

Ever since civilization began, trends have socialized groups on how to dress, think, and act; it becomes an absolute necessity to support whatever is in vogue or risk ostracization. Modern businesses create advertising in American media by following these cultural trends. Whether it is through periodicals, radio, or the all powerful television these companies use effective methods to psychologically convince their intended audience to buy either a product or service. These advertisements perfectly reflect how Americans perceive sex, social status, and gender roles. A prime example of this concept is a television commercial by Old Spice soliciting scented body wash to women with boyfriends or husbands. The sales pitch begins with an attractive black male in a bathroom egotistically claiming superiority over every woman’s significant other adding that men make a mistake in their body wash which is actually buying anything other than Old Spice. The setting spontaneously changes to a yacht at sea where the actor woos his female audience with show tickets and diamonds. The actor then confidently promises that if their men smell like Old Spice as well then anything is possible. As a final note, he randomly confesses that he is on a horse as a catchy jingle plays in the background. This commercial is extremely effective in selling to women by creating a stereotypical romantic man to serve as a salesman. The advertisement conveys the notion that women will only be satisfied if their men are not only very attractive but can provide a lifestyle of infinite luxury using humor, subconscious promises of success, and the Old Spice man himself. Humor is the most explicit tool this advertisement uses in appealing to the audience being over the top to produce positive emotions within each viewer. The most apparent example is how cocky the Old Spice man is in his presentation of the product. It is amusing how he arrogantly degrades other men for their use of â€Å"lady scented body wash† and how they unfortunately cannot be him. The Old Spice man’s presentation is so egotistical yet suave one cannot help but be amused. Spontaneous scene changes from a bathroom to a yacht to on a horse are also ridiculously hilarious because they are random. The positive emotions evoked by humor are pivotal in order to sell a product. After watching the funny commercial positive feelings resurface whenever someone sees the same product inside a store; the odds that they will buy Old Spice body wash over another brand become very high. This concept brings to light that in American culture people enjoy humor. Humor can provide variations to a monotonous lifestyle as well as make people happy. Most people do not actively seek to be depressed so if humor can lead to amusement then people will actively seek for positive reinforcement. The writers of the Old Spice commercial understand the importance of humor and incorporate it with selling their personal hygiene product so that people will psychologically associate the two together. The association of an emotional response with a tangible object is not uncommon with advertisements because it is an effective way to sell on a subconscious level. By incorporating images of materialistic wealth such as a yacht, diamonds, and horseback riding on a beach Old Spice appeals to the American desire to possess limitless wealth. On the advertisement, the Old Spice man falsely claims that â€Å"anything is possible if your man smells like Old Spice† as he possesses excellent physique and is surrounded by various forms of materialistic wealth. To women the advertisement subconsciously implies that if they buy Old Spice body wash it is possible for their men to own a yacht, diamonds, and horseback ride on a tropical beach. The commercial wants to invoke feelings of desire and associate them with their product so that people will buy it. For middle class Americans, the demographic group whom the advertisement primarily targets, it is very possible to achieve a comfortable standard of wealth being able to eventually retire and live a lifestyle the way they please. Most people do not actively seek to become destitute therefore advertisements wisely do not portray the Old Spice man as homeless in a gutter using body wash to smell clean. The association of their product with negative imagery would result in poor product sales because feelings evoked by imagery like humor attach to a product in the minds of viewers. Understanding human psychology is pivotal in soliciting a product. The advertisement’s most powerful tool in attracting attention toward Old Spice body wash is sexual appeal because within American culture sex is a sensitive topic often considered taboo in conservative social circles. The Old Spice man exudes enough confidence to be considered arrogant, has irresistible charm, and has a sexy body in the eyes of women; he is the archetype of a romantic lover. The Old Spice man is deliberately placed in the advertisement to distract women from making a completely rational decision in buying the personal hygiene product. The real message the commercial makes is to specifically buy Old Spice body wash but the product is not even introduced until a full ten seconds after the advertisement begins with the attractive man commanding women to â€Å"look at your man, now back to me† three times. What women really observe is a romantic fantasy with the man their man can smell like on a boat showered with luxury gifts. The advertisement reflects the cultural belief that women lust for an attractive and wealthy man; it also plays on the racial stereotype that men of African descent are sexually well endowed being that the Old Spice man is black. For men specifically Old Spice implies that it will make them more desirable in the eyes of women smelling no longer like a lady but a man. This concept demonstrates how powerful sex appeal is in the advertisement epitomized by the Old Spice man himself. Old Spice wants to make their product sexually desirable so it will sell. Without the element of sex many products would not sell as well as they presently do because there is no explicit desire attached. People like sex. More specifically, people long to become sexually attractive and if a product can make a promise to do so people will buy it. It is well understood that companies make advertisements to sell their product to make a profit. In order to stand out among the competition advertisements play on the psychology of targeted viewers by making references to humor, misleading information, and sex. In American culture sex is the most powerful because of how sex is socially perceived as indecent or lewd while being very much ingrained within society. It is to retailer’s advantage that a product carries an additional label beyond its intended use because of how people like to think they are getting more with what they pay for. It can be very easy for consumers to fall for ploys by advertisements; they are Venus fly traps set to catch their next prey.

A New Look At Personal Identity Essay

A new look at personal identity Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In his article, â€Å"A New Look at Personal Identity,† Michael Allen Fox, argues his opinion on the feisty historic debate about physical and psychological continuity views on personal identity (Fox, 2007). Hebrings in his view of the â€Å"self-developed by existential philosophy† as what makes a person. He does not invalidate the original views but says that the issue of what makes a person remains a task for philosophers to investigate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fox wants to handle the often tricky dilemma of personal identity that has been tackled by philosophers since time immemorial. He identifies some questions to solve; â€Å"Who am I?† and â€Å"Might I be a very different person in the future?† He begins by stating that according to most responses, the conclusion boils down to either the soul or the body. He says that one cannot find ‘you’ or ‘I’in the soul, but it is easy to associate it with something tangible like the body. He goes on to state the grounds for the belief of the first group; that we are souls and that we do not change. He counters it by introducing the belief that for something to exist it is imperative for to be able to locate in space and time. He then introduces the philosophers’ dominant stance on the subject that the soul is non-existent (Hamilton, 1995).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Seeking to find out whether the philosophers are right, Fox looks at history and resolves that people either believe in physical or psychological continuity as what makes a person. He says that according to the former, someone never changes as they have had the same body since their birth. To support the argument, he recounts an ancient enigma called ‘The Ship of Theseus.’ He states that Theseus was the king and that gradually his whole ship’sparts got replacement so that no part of it remained as the first. He further says that this is the philosophers’ basis of their argument; that incremental replacement occurs on the gut, the epidermis, red blood cells, bone and muscles. He also introduces organ transplant to strengthen on their claim. He goes on to say that the cerebral and visual cortex never regenerate and concludes that the most important parts of us do not change in relation to the subject at hand. He al so introduces the concept of the DNA as another hurdle to the physical approach. He explains that as unique as the DNA is, it does not form part of all our body; only ten percent of the body DNA resides in our cells. He questions why philosophers have not ventured to use DNA as one of thebase of individual continuity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The decision point comes when Fox discredits the latter approach as ancient and introduces the view of the â€Å"self-developed by existential philosophy† as an alternative. He argues that â€Å"a self or person is what it does,† an activity, what he or she does daily, by their means of choices and actions. He calls it the ‘continuity of responsible action’(Fox, 2007). He concludes by saying the matter is one that remains one for philosophy to investigate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The article tries to elucidate on the subject of what makes a person. However, Fox was unable to give a rigid conclusion and left the matter open to discussion. Although he elucidated on physical continuity, I think that he should not have discredited psychological continuity; additional explanation should have been made to let the reader decide for themselves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Is the author’s view the best alternative among the three?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Should philosophers continue their research on physical continuity? References Hamilton, A. (1995). A new look at personal identity. The Philosophical Quarterly, 332-349. Fox, M. A. (2007). A new look at personal identity. Philosophy Now, 62, 10-11. Source document

Sociology - 1259 Words

The concept of sociology had been recognized by independent philosophers since the dawn of organized civilization. Philosophers such as Confucius and Xenophanes in their works had hinted at the clash of cultures and social hierarchy. Later, in the 14th century, Arab scholars such as Al Jahiz and Ibn Khalduns compliled books on the history of society itself. These works are known to be forerunners of sociology. In fact, books written by Ibn Khaldun on social cohesion and conflict were translated into Latin in the 15th century. However, Sociology as a discipline has only been around since the late 17th century. Sociology then was very much the product of a rapidly changing world, from the violent revolutions in France to the subtle†¦show more content†¦Interest was further fueled in these societies as major urban centers were also a place of conflict. Rural immigrants from all around the country would often have to live in one spot to work for a certain company, and that crea tes problems of its own. Phenomenon such as the adoption of nuclear families, cases of suicide and ethnic violence in the communities were noted by sociologists during the period. The end result of the movement led to a society in which a few profited greatly, while the majority suffered under long working hours and poor living conditions. As a consequence, reactionary anti-capitalist and pro-labor movements sprung up all around Europe which were dedicated to overthrow this new social order. The most notable of social commentators of the time was Karl Marx. Karl Marx championed his own version of communism which is now known as Marxism. He believed that if society continued to be guided by capitalism, there would eventually come a time when the workers would overthrow the rich owner. 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Not only did Comte come up with this idea but there were several things that influenced the study of Sociology and how we view it today. These influences are called the origins of sociology and they include; new idea or discipline, Industrial RevolutionRead MoreSociology : Social Science And Sociology1386 Words   |  6 Pagesto the history of sociology, it was the nineteenth century that sociology emerged, with the word ‘ sociology ’ appeared in the Cours de ph ilosophie Positive Book 4[ Auguste Comte,1838 Cours de philosophie Positive] by Comte in 1838. The social forces, however, were complicated actually, which included both social, economical, cultural and even a little bit of political or religious elements. This essay explains these factors in the following part. 2.1 Social Science and Sociology The philosophesRead Moresociology4813 Words   |  20 Pagesex un touchables of the caste groups. they work as landless laborers. Describe the factors and forces of social mobility. 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